Secants closing on the tangent to x²
secant is one function. Everything below came out of it during this
build, at parameters taken from the essays rather than invented for this page — so a figure
here is the same figure a reader meets in an essay, and if the generator changes, this page
changes with it.
With nothing chosen
Chords that settle, and chords that do not
A point with two slopes
A rectangle grown on two sides
The slope of x² sin(1/x): discontinuous at nought, and never jumping
x sin(1/x) and its secants from the origin
What it checks while it draws
Collected by running the family and recording what it asserted, not written here. The count is how many separate times the claim was put to the test while these drawings were made.
- a point where the slope formula breaks down in both directions is a genuine crossing ×1
- and of slope minus one ×1
- and the difference quotient closes on u'v + uv' ×1
- and the gap as a fraction of the window falls with it ×1
- and the rough curve's do not settle on anything ×1
- arbitrarily short secants of slope one ×1
- at a regular point the partial derivative in y is away from zero ×1
- at the minimum the slope of the original curve is exactly the level ×1
- beside a vertical tangent one side meets the curve twice and the other not at all ×1
- between 1 and 4 mirrored pairs are marked ×1
- between 1 and 4 pairs are marked ×1
- between 2 and 4 windows are drawn ×1
- between 4 and 14 spacings are measured ×1
- both ends are higher than the minimum ×1
- both sides grow, so the picture is four pieces and not a signed sum ×1
- both sides of the rectangle are positive lengths ×1
- by the last halving the corner is under a twentieth of the increment ×1
- each magnification is between 2 and 20 ×1
- each secant is closer than the last ×1
- each shorter secant is closer to the slope the equation gives ×1
- each step magnifies by between 2 and 20 ×1
- every secant from the left has slope −1 ×1
- every secant from the right has slope 1 ×1
- inside the window round a regular point each vertical line meets the curve once ×1
- on every interval about nought the slope runs nearly from −1 to 1 ×1
- the bisection really inverts the function ×1
- the corner's share of the increment falls at every halving ×1
- the curve is one the figure knows ×1
- the curve, solved for y near the point, has the slope minus the ratio of the two partial derivatives ×1
- the derivative is drawn for the power 2 or 3 ×1
- the derivative's formula matches its difference quotients ×1
- the first window is at most 4 wide ×1
- the four pieces fill the grown rectangle ×1
- the function increases across the window it is drawn in ×1
- the function is increasing where it is marked, so it has an inverse there ×1
- the function is one the family knows ×1
- the function is one the figure knows ×1
- the gap to the tangent falls by the square of the magnification ×1
- the increment is the two strips and the corner ×1
- the last secant is near the tangent ×1
- the level c is reached again and again as x approaches nought ×1
- the level is strictly between −1 and 1 ×1
- the level lies between the slopes at the two ends ×1
- the marked point is inside the window ×1
- the marked point is not one where the tangent is vertical ×1
- the marked point lies on the curve ×1
- the minimum is inside the interval, not at an end ×1
- the pair is one the figure knows ×1
- the power is 1, 2 or 3 ×1
- the rectangle is drawn inside the domain of both functions ×1
- the secant slope from the origin is h^(p−1) sin(1/h) ×1
- the secant slope is squeezed by the envelope ×1
- the secants are drawn at a list of 2 to 24 positive offsets ×1
- the secants run one way along the curve or the other ×1
- the smooth curve's chords close on its tangent ×1
- the step is a positive length under 1.6 ×1
- the step the rectangle grows by is a positive length under 1.6 ×1
- the two sides disagree, so there is no limit ×1
- the two slopes at a matched pair multiply to one ×1
- the view is one the family draws ×1
Where it is called
Every figure on this list is drawn by the same rule, so a change to the rule changes all of them at once. That is why the list is published.
A curve with a corner at every point
Continuity means a curve can be drawn without lifting the pen. Differentiability means it has a tangent. The first was assumed to nearly imply the second until 1872, when Weierstrass exhibited a curve that is continuous everywhere and has a tangent nowhere — and it is a sum of cosines.
AnalysisA rectangle grown on two sides
A product of two changing quantities is the area of a rectangle whose sides both move. The extra area is two strips and a corner, and the whole of the product rule is the observation that the corner is negligible and the strips are not.
AnalysisA slope can swing but never jump
A function can have a slope at every point without that slope changing continuously: x² sin(1/x) has slope nought at the origin and a slope that swings between −1 and 1 however close to the origin it is taken. What a slope cannot do is jump. Darboux proved in 1875 that a derivative takes every value between any two of its values, so a step is never a derivative — and the only way a slope can be discontinuous is by oscillating.
AnalysisA slope for a curve that is no function
The folium x³ + y³ = 3xy loops back over itself, so no formula y = f(x) describes it, and yet at almost every point it has a perfectly good tangent. Differentiating the equation as it stands gives the slope, −(∂F/∂x) ÷ (∂F/∂y), and the only points where that fails are the ones where the curve turns vertical or crosses itself — which are exactly the points where it stops being a graph.
AnalysisArea is the undoing of slope
Two operations invented for unrelated reasons — measuring a region and measuring a rate — turn out to be inverse. The picture is two panels sharing one axis, and the claim is that the lower curve's steepness is the upper curve's height.
DynamicsHow fast the staircase arrives
The slope at a crossing decides whether an orbit reaches it. The same number decides how fast — and when the slope is zero the arithmetic changes kind, from a fixed factor per step to a doubling of the correct digits.
AnalysisThe flat map that fits closest
A derivative is usually met as a number, which works because a line through a point is described by one. In more than one dimension the object that plays the same role is a linear map, and the number was always a one-by-one instance of it.
AnalysisThe slope of a single point
A slope needs two points. A derivative is the slope at one. The construction that bridges the gap is a sequence of secants, and the whole difficulty of calculus is in what "the limit of that sequence" is allowed to mean.
AnalysisThe slope of the mirror image
Undoing a function is reflecting its graph in the diagonal, and a reflection turns a slope into its reciprocal. That single observation supplies the derivative of every inverse — the logarithm, the roots, the inverse trigonometric functions — without differentiating any of them.
AnalysisThe staircase that is not the diagonal
A staircase can be made to follow a quarter circle as closely as anyone likes. Its length is 2 at every stage and the arc's length is 1.5708, and no amount of refinement closes the gap — which is a fact about length rather than about staircases.