Generator

A map of the interval must fix a point

A generator in the topology library, called 107 times across 22 essays. Below: what it draws with nothing chosen and at each mode an essay asks for, what it checks while drawing, and everywhere it is used.

fixed-point is one function. Everything below came out of it during this build, at parameters taken from the essays rather than invented for this page — so a figure here is the same figure a reader meets in an essay, and if the generator changes, this page changes with it.

With nothing chosen

A map of the interval must fix a point. a continuous map of the interval, drawn with the diagonal. Every continuous map of the interval into itself meets the diagonal somewhere; this one does so at x = 0.6944.

A full board has exactly one winner

A full board has exactly one winner. A random 11 by 11 Hex board filled with two colours: second colour connects with a chain of 11 cells.

Every colouring, tested

Every colouring, tested. Hex boards exhaustively: 1x1: 2 colourings, 1 for the first colour; 2x2: 16 colourings, 8 for the first colour; 3x3: 512 colourings, 256 for the first colour; 4x4: 65536 colourings, 32768 for the first colour; never neither or both.

A walk that cannot get stuck

A walk that cannot get stuck. Walking the colour boundary from the top-left corner of a 9 by 9 board, seed 9: 113 steps; second colour: the walk ends at the right corner.

A board from a map

A board from a map. Square map coloured by the larger of its coordinate moves, on a 28 by 28 grid; fixed point near 0.7750, 0.5033; displacement 8.47e-4.

Which first moves win

Which first moves win. Exact solution of small Hex boards: winning first moves 2x2: 2, 3x3: 5, 4x4: 4; positions solved 10, 837, 612569.

What it checks while it draws

Collected by running the family and recording what it asserted, not written here. The count is how many separate times the claim was put to the test while these drawings were made.

Where it is called

Every figure on this list is drawn by the same rule, so a change to the rule changes all of them at once. That is why the list is published.

Topology

A board that cannot be drawn

Colour a rhombus of hexagons in two colours. One colour must join its two sides, and only one: in all 65,536 colourings of the four-by-four board, no exception. The proof is a walk along the colour boundary, the same walk that proves Sperner's lemma, and David Gale showed that the no-draw theorem of this board game is equivalent to Brouwer's fixed-point theorem. Nobody knows the winning strategy for a full-sized board, though a short argument proves one exists.

Topology

A cut that gets sharper as the map gets lazier

Iterating a map that shrinks distances by 0.9999 takes 141,254 steps to reach its fixed point to a millionth. Cutting takes six: read the map at one point, and the fixed point must lie on the far side of the line halfway between the point and its image. The cut gets better exactly where iteration gets worse, because a map that barely shrinks puts its fixed point almost on every such line.

Algebra

A loop that cannot miss the middle

Feed a circle into a polynomial and a closed loop comes out. A small circle gives a loop that does not enclose the origin; a large one gives a loop that goes round it as many times as the degree. Something has to happen in between, and that something is a root.

Topology

A map that offers a choice

Brouwer's theorem needs a function, and the object it was most wanted for is not one — a best reply is a whole set whenever a chooser is indifferent. Allow a point to be sent to a set and the fixed point survives, provided the sets are convex, and the convexity is the entire hypothesis.

Analysis

A map that shrinks everything

One extra hypothesis — that every distance is shortened by at least a fixed factor — turns the existence of a fixed point into its uniqueness, an algorithm for finding it, and a bound on the error after any number of steps.

Topology

A number that counts what it cannot see

Whether a map has a fixed point seems to need the map. Lefschetz's number needs only what the map does to holes, and it stays the same however the map is bent. On a torus it is one determinant: |det(I − A)| fixed points, checked exactly on all 2,401 small matrices, 1, 5, 16, 45, 121 periodic points for Arnold's cat, and a formula that also counts solutions of equations over finite fields.

Dynamics

A twist that cannot avoid two points

Turn the two edges of a ring in opposite directions without changing any area, and something in between must stay exactly where it is — not one point, but at least two, and the reason is that two loops enclosing the same area have to cross.

Topology

As many cuts as colours

Two thieves steal a necklace and want half of every colour of bead each. However the beads are strung, they never need more cuts than there are colours — three cuts for three colours, four for four — and sometimes they need every one. The guarantee is the Borsuk–Ulam theorem again, with a point on a sphere read as a way of cutting the necklace, and every necklace of several small kinds has been checked against it.

Topology

Four equal quarters with two lines

Any flat shape, however lopsided, can be cut into four pieces of equal area by two perpendicular straight lines. The proof turns the pair of lines like the hands of a clock: the area in one quadrant, minus a quarter, reverses its sign every quarter-turn, so somewhere it is zero. The same kind of argument cuts a solid into eight equal pieces with three planes. It stops working in five dimensions, where some masses cannot be cut into thirty-two equal pieces by five hyperplanes — and in four, nobody knows.

Topology

How many pieces to shrink a shape

Cut a disc in two and one half still holds a full diameter; cut it in three and every piece is narrower. In 1933 Karol Borsuk asked whether every bounded shape in d dimensions can be made narrower with d + 1 pieces, and the antipodal theorem he proved in the same paper says no number smaller will do for a ball. The guess held in the plane and in space, and failed in 1993: sixty years later, a set of sign patterns turned into points showed that some shapes need exponentially many pieces — the first in 1,325 dimensions, and now known in 64.

Topology

Lines that leave half on each side

Scatter ten points on a page and draw every line through two of them that leaves four on each side. There are at least five such halving lines and at most thirteen, and every point lies on an odd number of them. Both facts come from turning a line through half a revolution, the argument that halves two shapes with one cut. How many halving lines n points can have is the k-set problem, and its answer lies somewhere between a little more than n and n to the four-thirds.

Topology

Nothing on a sphere can be combed flat

Point an arrow along the surface at every place on a sphere, continuously, and somewhere an arrow has to vanish. On a doughnut it can be done. The difference between the two is a number that was already known from counting corners.

Topology

One line that halves them both

Two shapes lying anywhere on a page, of any sizes and any shapes at all. There is always a single straight line that cuts both of them into two equal halves at once — and finding it needs no cleverness, only the observation that a quantity which reverses sign has to pass through zero.

Topology

Opposite labels that have to meet

Cut a square into triangles, label every corner +1, −1, +2 or −2, and insist only that opposite points of the edge get opposite labels. Somewhere inside, an edge must join a label to its negative. The proof counts quarter-turns round a diamond — an odd number on the boundary, zero in any triangle that avoids opposites — and making the triangles smaller turns the count back into the theorem about opposite points on the Earth.

Topology

Seven points split three ways

Any seven points in the plane can be divided into three groups whose convex hulls share a point, and six points in general position never can. The theorem is Helge Tverberg's; its topological version, in which straight lines may bend, is true when the number of groups is a power of a prime and false otherwise — and the proof that decides which is the same antipodal argument that halves a sandwich.

Topology

Several colours on every vertex

Give every pair from six points three colours, so that pairs with nothing in common share no colour. Counting says nine colours might do; ten are needed. Stahl conjectured in 1976 exactly how many colours every such problem needs — a formula that meets Lovász's topological answer at one colour a vertex and the obvious answer at k — and a search over stars and triangles confirms it in every case small enough to run.

Topology

Something always stays put

Stir a cup of coffee however violently and let it settle. Some molecule is exactly where it started. Crumple a map and drop it on the region it depicts, and one point lies over the place it names.

Topology

The colours a circle forces

Take every pair from five things and join two pairs when they share nothing. Three colours are enough to colour the result so joined pairs differ, and two are not — but no triangle, no dense cluster and no counting argument explains why. The reason is five points on a circle and a direction that cannot be told apart from its opposite, and the same reason, one sphere at a time, settles Kneser's question for every size.

Discrete

Three colours force a triangle

Cut a triangle into small ones and colour the corners under one restriction. However the cutting and the colouring are done, some small triangle ends up with all three colours — and the number of them is always odd.

Topology

Two opposite points that agree twice

At any moment there are two points on opposite sides of the Earth with the same temperature and the same pressure. On a seeded globe they sit at 11.9°N 44.6°E and 11.9°S 135.4°W. The reason is the circle argument that halved two shapes, run one dimension up: the differences between opposite readings, walked round the equator, wind round zero an odd number of times — and an odd number cannot be zero.

Topology

What it costs to find the point that stays put

Brouwer's theorem promises a point a map leaves where it is, and Sperner's corridor walks to it. On a gentle map the walk is short; twist the map about its fixed point and the corridor follows every turn, so its cost grows like the square of the grid. Halving the square by winding number finds the same point in a number of readings proportional to the grid's side whatever the map does — and no method that only reads the map can do fundamentally better.

Topology

Where the fixed point escapes

The theorem asks for a set that is closed, bounded and free of holes. Drop any one of the three and a map appears that moves every single point — and in each case the point that should have stayed still can be seen leaving.

The whole library · What the figures prove